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Background:
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Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was
not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and
American commercial operators and British and Russian
national expeditions began exploring the Antarctic
Peninsula region and other areas south of the Antarctic
Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that
Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group
of islands. Several exploration "firsts" were achieved
in the early 20th century. Following World War II, there
was an upsurge in scientific research on the continent.
A number of countries have set up year-round research
stations on Antarctica. Seven have made territorial
claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. In
order to form a legal framework for the activities of
nations on the continent, an Antarctic Treaty was
negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to
existing territorial claims; signed in 1959, it entered
into force in 1961. |
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Location:
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continent
mostly south of the Antarctic Circle |
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Geographic coordinates:
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90 00 S,
0 00 E |
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Map references:
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Antarctic
Region |
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Area:
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total:
14 million sq km
land: 14 million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free,
13.72 million sq km ice-covered) (est.)
note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia,
Africa, North America, and South America, but larger
than Australia and the subcontinent of Europe |
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Area - comparative:
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slightly
less than 1.5 times the size of the US |
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Land boundaries:
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0 km
note: see entry on Disputes - international |
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Coastline:
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17,968 km
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Maritime claims:
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Australia, Chile, and Argentina claim Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ) rights or similar over 200 nm extensions
seaward from their continental claims, but like the
claims themselves, these zones are not accepted by other
countries; 20 of 27 Antarctic consultative nations have
made no claims to Antarctic territory (although Russia
and the US have reserved the right to do so) and do not
recognize the claims of the other nations; also see the
Disputes - international entry |
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Climate:
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severe
low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and
distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than
West Antarctica because of its higher elevation;
Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate;
higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and
average slightly below freezing |
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Terrain:
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about 98%
thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with
average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters;
mountain ranges up to nearly 5,000 meters; ice-free
coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land,
Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of
Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves
along about half of the coastline, and floating ice
shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent |
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Elevation extremes:
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lowest
point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,555 m
highest point: Vinson Massif 4,897 m
note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica
is hidden in the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its
surface is the deepest ice yet discovered and the
world's lowest elevation not under seawater |
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Natural resources:
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iron ore,
chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other
minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in
small uncommercial quantities; none presently exploited;
krill, finfish, and crab have been taken by commercial
fisheries |
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Land use:
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arable
land: 0%
permanent crops: 0%
other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%) (2001) |
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Irrigated land:
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0 sq km
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Natural hazards:
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katabatic
(gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high
interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the
plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move
clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island
and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic
activity rare and weak; large icebergs may calve from
ice shelf |
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Environment - current issues:
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in 1998,
NASA satellite data showed that the antarctic ozone hole
was the largest on record, covering 27 million square
kilometers; researchers in 1997 found that increased
ultraviolet light passing through the hole damages the
DNA of icefish, an antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin;
ozone depletion earlier was shown to harm one-celled
antarctic marine plants; in 2002, significant areas of
ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional
warming |
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Geography - note:
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the
coldest, windiest, highest (on average), and driest
continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches
the surface at the South Pole than is received at the
Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable
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Population:
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no
indigenous inhabitants, but there are both permanent and
summer-only staffed research stations
note: 26 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic
Treaty, operate seasonal (summer) and year-round
research stations on the continent and in its
surrounding oceans; the population of persons doing and
supporting science on the continent and its nearby
islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region
covered by the Antarctic Treaty) varies from
approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter; in
addition, approximately 1,000 personnel including ship's
crew and scientists doing onboard research are present
in the waters of the treaty region; summer (January)
population - 3,687 total; Argentina 302, Australia 201,
Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Bulgaria 16, Chile 352, China 70,
Finland 11, France 100, Germany 51, India 60, Italy 106,
Japan 136, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 60, Norway
40, Peru 28, Poland 70, Russia 254, South Africa 80,
Spain 43, Sweden 20, UK 192, US 1,378 (1998-99); winter
(July) population - 964 total; Argentina 165, Australia
75, Brazil 12, Chile 129, China 33, France 33, Germany
9, India 25, Japan 40, South Korea 14, NZ 10, Poland 20,
Russia 102, South Africa 10, UK 39, US 248 (1998-99);
research stations operated within the Antarctic Treaty
area (south of 60 degrees south) by members of the
Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP):
year-round stations - 38 total; Argentina 6, Australia
3, Brazil 1, Chile 4, China 2, France 1, Germany 1,
India 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Poland 1, Russia
6, South Africa 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1,
Italy and France jointly 1 (2005); summer-only stations
- 34 total; Argentina 8, Australia 2, Bulgaria 1, Chile
5, Ecuador 1, Finland 1, Germany 2, Italy 1, Japan 3,
Norway 2, Peru 1, Russia 2, South Africa 1, Spain 2,
Sweden 1, UK 1 (2004-2005); in addition, during the
austral summer some nations have numerous occupied
locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary
facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research
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Country name:
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conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Antarctica |
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Government type:
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Antarctic
Treaty Summary - the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1
December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961,
establishes the legal framework for the management of
Antarctica; the 27th Antarctic Treaty Consultative
Meeting was held in Cape Town, South Africa in May-June
2004; at these periodic meetings, decisions are made by
consensus (not by vote) of all consultative member
nations; at the end of 2003, there were 45 treaty member
nations: 28 consultative and 17 non-consultative;
consultative (decision-making) members include the seven
nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national
territory (some claims overlap) and 21 non-claimant
nations; the US and Russia have reserved the right to
make claims; the US does not recognize the claims of
others; Antarctica is administered through meetings of
the consultative member nations; decisions from these
meetings are carried out by these member nations (with
respect to their own nationals and operations) in
accordance with their own national laws; the year in
parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was
accepted as a consultative member, while no date
indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty
signatory; claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia,
Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK.
Nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil
(1983), Bulgaria (1998) China (1985), Ecuador (1990),
Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy
(1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990),
Peru (1989), Poland (1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain
(1988), Sweden (1988), Ukraine (1992), Uruguay (1985),
and the US; non-consultative members, with year of
accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Canada
(1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic
(1993), Denmark (1965), Estonia (2001), Greece (1987),
Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987),
Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia
(1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1995), and Venezuela
(1999); Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful
purposes only; military activity, such as weapons
testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and
equipment may be used for scientific research or any
other peaceful purpose; Article 2 - freedom of
scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue;
Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel,
cooperation with the UN and other international
agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize, dispute, or
establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be
asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 -
prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive
wastes; Article 6 - includes under the treaty all land
and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south and
reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state
observers have free access, including aerial
observation, to any area and may inspect all stations,
installations, and equipment; advance notice of all
expeditions and of the introduction of military
personnel must be given; Article 8 - allows for
jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own
states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take
place among member nations; Article 10 - treaty states
will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica
that are contrary to the treaty; Article 11 - disputes
to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or,
ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with
upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among
involved nations; other agreements - some 200
recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings
and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures
for Fauna and Flora (1964) which were later incorporated
into the Environmental Protocol; Convention for the
Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on
the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
(1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988
but remains unratified; the Protocol on Environmental
Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 October
1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998; this
agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic
environment through five specific annexes: 1)
environmental impact assessment, 2) conservation of
Antarctic fauna and flora, 3) waste disposal and waste
management, 4) prevention of marine pollution, and 5)
area protection and management; it prohibits all
activities relating to mineral resources except
scientific research; a permanent Antarctic Treaty
Secretariat was established in 2004 in Buenos Aires,
Argentina |
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Legal system:
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Antarctica is administered through meetings of the
consultative member nations; decisions from these
meetings are carried out by these member nations (with
respect to their own nationals and operations) in
accordance with their own national laws; US law,
including certain criminal offenses by or against US
nationals, such as murder, may apply
extra-territorially; some US laws directly apply to
Antarctica; for example, the Antarctic Conservation Act,
16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and
criminal penalties for the following activities, unless
authorized by regulation of statute: the taking of
native mammals or birds; the introduction of
nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially
protected areas; the discharge or disposal of
pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain
items from Antarctica; violation of the Antarctic
Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in
fines and one year in prison; the National Science
Foundation and Department of Justice share enforcement
responsibilities; Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic
Conservation Act of 1978, as amended in 1996, requires
expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in
advance, the Office of Oceans, Room 5805, Department of
State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to
other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty; for
more information, contact Permit Office, Office of Polar
Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington,
Virginia 22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030, or visit
their website at www.nsf.gov; more generally, access to
the Antarctic Treaty area, that is to all areas between
60 and 90 degrees latitude South, is subject to a number
of relevant legal instruments and authorization
procedures adopted by the states party to the Antarctic
Treaty. |
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Economy - overview:
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Fishing
off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account
for the limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries
in 2000-01 (1 July-30 June) reported landing 112,934
metric tons. Unregulated fishing, particularly of
Patagonian toothfish, is a serious problem. The
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine
Living Resources determines the recommended catch limits
for marine species. A total of 13,571 tourists visited
in the 2002-03 antarctic summer, up from the 11,588
visitors the previous year. Nearly all of them were
passengers on commercial (nongovernmental) ships and
several yachts that make trips during the summer. Most
tourist trips last approximately two weeks. |
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Telephones - main lines in use:
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0
note: information for US bases only (2001) |
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Telephones - mobile cellular:
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NA |
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Telephone system:
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general assessment: local
systems at some research stations
domestic: NA
international: country code - 672; via satellite
(mobile Inmarsat and Iridium system) from some research
stations |
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Radio broadcast stations:
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AM NA, FM
2, shortwave 1
note: information for US bases only (2002) |
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Television broadcast stations:
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1 (cable
system with six channels; American Forces Antarctic
Network-McMurdo)
note: information for US bases only (2002) |
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Internet country code:
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.aq |
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Airports:
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there are
no developed public access airports or landing
facilities; 30 stations, operated by 16 national
governments party to the Antarctic Treaty, have
restricted aircraft landing facilities for either
helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial
enterprises operate two additional aircraft landing
facilities; helicopter pads are available at 27
stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice,
blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing
wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft; of these, one is greater
than 3 km in length, six are between 2 km and 3 km in
length, three are between 1 km and 2 km in length, three
are less than 1 km in length, and two are of unknown
length; snow surface skiways, limited to use by
ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at
another 15 locations; of these, four are greater than 3
km in length, three are between 2 km and 3 km in length,
two are between 1 km and 2 km in length, two are less
than 1 km in length, and four are of unknown length;
aircraft landing facilities generally subject to severe
restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme
seasonal and geographic conditions; aircraft landing
facilities do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval
from the respective governmental or nongovernmental
operating organization required for using their
facilities; landed aircraft are subject to inspection in
accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty; guidelines
for the operation of aircraft near concentrations of
birds in Antarctica were adopted in 2004; relevant legal
instruments and authorization procedures adopted by
states party to the Antarctic Treaty regulating access
to the Antarctic Treaty area, that is to all areas
between 60 and 90 degrees of latitude South, have to be
complied with (see information under "Legal System"); an
Antarctic Flight Information Manual (AFIM) providing
up-to-date details of Antarctic air facilities and
procedures is maintained and published by the Council of
Managers of National Antarctic Programs (2004 est.) |
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Airports - with unpaved runways:
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total:
20
over 3,047 m: 6
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 4
under 914 m: 6 (2005 est.) |
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Heliports:
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27
stations have restricted helicopter landing facilities
(helipads) (2005 est.) |
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Ports and terminals:
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there are
no developed ports and harbors in Antarctica; most
coastal stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies
are transferred from ship to shore by small boats,
barges, and helicopters; a few stations have a basic
wharf facility; US coastal stations include McMurdo (77
51 S, 166 40 E), Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03 W); government
use only except by permit (see Permit Office under
"Legal System"); all ships at port are subject to
inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic
Treaty; offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent;
relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures
adopted by the states party to the Antarctic Treaty
regulating access to the Antarctic Treaty area, to all
areas between 60 and 90 degrees of latitude South, have
to be complied with (see "Legal System") (2004) |
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Military - note:
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the
Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military
nature, such as the establishment of military bases and
fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers,
or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use
of military personnel or equipment for scientific
research or for any other peaceful purposes |
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Disputes - international:
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Antarctic
Treaty freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in
Government type entry); Argentina, Australia, Chile,
France, NZ, Norway, and UK claim land and maritime
sectors (some overlapping) for a large portion of the
continent; the US and many other states do not recognize
these territorial claims and have made no claims
themselves (the US and Russia reserve the right to do
so); no claims have been made in the sector between 90
degrees west and 150 degrees west; several states with
territorial claims in Antarctica have expressed their
intention to submit data to the UN Commission on the
Limits of the Continental Shelf to extend their
continental shelf claims to adjoining undersea ridges
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